In response to the peer reviews I've received, there are definitely some things I would have done a bit differently. I would have done a longer conclusion, that better relates to the project as a whole, to tie it up with more finality. I also would have liked to included more information on peasant women, since I pretty much solely focused on women of the upper class. While working on the project, I didn't even realize I was doing this, it was just that the only information I could find was on upper class women. With more extensive research, I might have been able to find more info on peasant women, which would have made for more comprehensive results.
Several of my peer reviewers, pointed out a lack of works cited/bibliography, but I'd just like to make note that I have a works cited page in the side bar. Perhaps I should have made that a bit more prominent on my blog.
I also think I should have focused more on the "why," I got quite hung up on explaining things and including facts. Although I did come to the conclusion that there was a pretty major shift in the position of women in the 8th century, I still don't fully understand why that happened, and think I would have needed to analyze my research in a different way to do so. The next time I work on a project like this, I plan to look at my results in more of a why/how manner, rather than purely factual.
Sunday, June 16, 2013
Conclusion
Looking back at my driving question and hypothesis, I'm not sure if I have an answer to the question, and I know that my hypothesis was completely incorrect. I went into this project with almost no knowledge of Shintoism, Buddhism, the role of women in Japan, and their subsequent interconnection, and I think that that's apparent in the question I asked. Through a Western lens, I assumed that two different religions must fundamentally oppose one another in social order and expectation. After doing some research, I now believe that Japanese history is not defined by a battle between two religions, two different options for women. Shintoism and Buddhism in Japan have been shaped around one another; the two are no easy to separate due to centuries of exchanging practices, beliefs, and ideas. As the position of women in one religion changed, so it did in the other, and in Japanese culture as a whole. This was not a cause and effect relationship; it was a push and pull that resulted in practically uniform developments in the position of women, regardless of the religious context.
Position of Women After Buddhism's Introduction
Despite the misleading title, I've actually found in my research that Buddhism's introduction was not a huge turning point for the position of women in Japan. In the centuries immediately following the Buddhism's arrival at the imperial court in 522, women continued to enjoy political power. From 592 to 792, six different empresses held the throne, ruling for a combined total of 113 years (Lebra-Chapman). For example, Empress Jito ruled officially for ten years when her husband Emperor Temmu died in 686, and continued to rule through her grandson until her death in 702 (Kitagawa).
Correspondent to the (still often shamanic) female empresses, Buddhist nuns were given power and freedom during this time period. In 584, the first temple for Buddhist nuns was built, twenty years before a temple was built for monks. The nuns selected to live in this temple were expected to have the same shamanic charisma of Himiko and the many other legendary women rulers. However, discrimination against nuns began to crop up in the eighth century, in the middle of the Nara era. Nunneries and monasteries were built in pairs, but the monasteries held all financial control. In 730, nuns were banned from chanting in the court and other important ceremonies (Fujimura-Fanselow).
Women lost political power in the eighth century as well. After Empress Koken's death, it became uncustomary, but not illegal, for women to be empresses, and so a woman never again held the throne. The matriarchal system inherent to Japanese clan organization was abolished in favor of the ever growing partiarchy (Lebra-Chapman).
This sentiment only increased in the Heian era, in both Buddhism and Shintoism. Shinto women were barred from ritual while menstruating, and Hoden, the founder of Pure Land Buddhism, once regarded women as "being too sinful and facing too many obstacles to accept any of the Buddhist paradise." At the end of the Sengoku period (15th to 17th century), the patriarchal ie family structure became popular. The ie structure could be seen in Buddhist monasteries, where the monks lived at the top of the mountain conducting religious services, and their wives, mothers, and sisters resided at the foot of the mountain, called satobo, performing domestic tasks. Ie organization wasn't abolished until after World War II, and since then , Japanese women have regained much of their former power (Fujimura-Fanselow).
Correspondent to the (still often shamanic) female empresses, Buddhist nuns were given power and freedom during this time period. In 584, the first temple for Buddhist nuns was built, twenty years before a temple was built for monks. The nuns selected to live in this temple were expected to have the same shamanic charisma of Himiko and the many other legendary women rulers. However, discrimination against nuns began to crop up in the eighth century, in the middle of the Nara era. Nunneries and monasteries were built in pairs, but the monasteries held all financial control. In 730, nuns were banned from chanting in the court and other important ceremonies (Fujimura-Fanselow).
Women lost political power in the eighth century as well. After Empress Koken's death, it became uncustomary, but not illegal, for women to be empresses, and so a woman never again held the throne. The matriarchal system inherent to Japanese clan organization was abolished in favor of the ever growing partiarchy (Lebra-Chapman).
This sentiment only increased in the Heian era, in both Buddhism and Shintoism. Shinto women were barred from ritual while menstruating, and Hoden, the founder of Pure Land Buddhism, once regarded women as "being too sinful and facing too many obstacles to accept any of the Buddhist paradise." At the end of the Sengoku period (15th to 17th century), the patriarchal ie family structure became popular. The ie structure could be seen in Buddhist monasteries, where the monks lived at the top of the mountain conducting religious services, and their wives, mothers, and sisters resided at the foot of the mountain, called satobo, performing domestic tasks. Ie organization wasn't abolished until after World War II, and since then , Japanese women have regained much of their former power (Fujimura-Fanselow).
Women in Early Shinto
Using the background information I have on religion in Japan, combined with some new information, I'm going to look at the position of women before and after the introduction of Buddhism.
With an all-powerful female deity, Amaterasu, and mythology full of powerful female kami, it isn't surprising that Shintoism gave women spiritual authority. In a time where religion held a huge place in the imperial court, this meant that women often held political and social authority as well. During the Yamato period, women could become court shamans, and a Chinese reporter even said that the people of Japan "have profound faith in shamans, both male and female" (Kitagawa).
One of these powerful shaman women was called Himiko, or in Chinese, Pimiko. In the country of Wa, political conflicts from 147 to 189 resulted in the induction of Himoko as queen. Himoko preferred solitude, and used divine oracles to help her rule (Sharma).
Similarly, the shamanic diviner Empress Jingu became ruler after the death of her husband, Emperor Chuai, most likely during the third or fourth century (Sharma). Guaranteed victory by the kami, Empress Jingu led the Japanese army in a successful battle against Korea. Although it is debated whether or not Empress Jingu was a real person, or legendary figure, she demonstrates in either case the power that women could obtain through Shintoism (Kitagawa).
This woodblock print shows a Meiji artist's interpretation of Empress Jingu invading Korea (Yusai).
With an all-powerful female deity, Amaterasu, and mythology full of powerful female kami, it isn't surprising that Shintoism gave women spiritual authority. In a time where religion held a huge place in the imperial court, this meant that women often held political and social authority as well. During the Yamato period, women could become court shamans, and a Chinese reporter even said that the people of Japan "have profound faith in shamans, both male and female" (Kitagawa).
One of these powerful shaman women was called Himiko, or in Chinese, Pimiko. In the country of Wa, political conflicts from 147 to 189 resulted in the induction of Himoko as queen. Himoko preferred solitude, and used divine oracles to help her rule (Sharma).
Similarly, the shamanic diviner Empress Jingu became ruler after the death of her husband, Emperor Chuai, most likely during the third or fourth century (Sharma). Guaranteed victory by the kami, Empress Jingu led the Japanese army in a successful battle against Korea. Although it is debated whether or not Empress Jingu was a real person, or legendary figure, she demonstrates in either case the power that women could obtain through Shintoism (Kitagawa).
Saturday, June 15, 2013
Buddhism Introduced
With the introduction of Buddhism , religion in Japan was forever changed. Although it probably made contact earlier, Buddhism was officially introduced to the imperial court of Japan by the Korean king of Paekche in 552 (Kitagawa). Initially, this concerned emperor Kimmei and his court, because they feared the foreign, and thought that Buddhism would upset the kami (Hoffman).
The leaders of the budding Buddhist movement came from the immigrant Soga clan. When disease broke out, the court blamed the Soga for having perturbed the kami, and therefore having caused the epidemic. The Soga were attacked. Civil war began in 587, and the Soga were victorious (Hoffman). In 592, the regent Prince Shotuku proclaimed Buddhism the official court religion, but most people remained Shinto (Littleton).
Regardless of the official religion, both Buddhism and Shintoism remained strong in Japanese culture. Buddhist temples were built next to Shinto shrines, leading to a fusion of the faiths by the Heian era (794-1185), often called Ryobu Shinto. In Ryobu Shinto, Shinto kami and Buddhist bosatsu, enlightened beings, were combined and worshiped as one. As aspects of Shinto diffused into Buddhism, and aspects of Buddhism diffused into Shinto, the two became increasingly indistinguishable (Littleton). The side-by-side shrines and temples were so similar, that they were often called "jingi-ju" meaning "shrine-temples" (Prideaux), and the Buddhist teacher Kobo Daishi (774-835) even said, "Among the various ways/ to become a Buddha/ the most potent way is/ the way of the kami" (Hoffman).
For centuries, Buddhism and Shintoism coexisted with the same blurred distinctions. However, during a surge of nationalism in the Meiji Era (1868-1912), Shinto was reinstated as the official religion of Japan, with a focus on ridding it of all Buddhist influences. Seen as anti-Japanese compared to their Shinto counterparts, many Buddhist artifacts were destroyed and Buddhist people persecuted (Prideaux). After World War II, "State Shinto" was revoked, and the two religions have returned to their natural state of balance. Many people of present day Japan consider themselves to be some combination of both Buddhist and Shinto (Littleton).
The leaders of the budding Buddhist movement came from the immigrant Soga clan. When disease broke out, the court blamed the Soga for having perturbed the kami, and therefore having caused the epidemic. The Soga were attacked. Civil war began in 587, and the Soga were victorious (Hoffman). In 592, the regent Prince Shotuku proclaimed Buddhism the official court religion, but most people remained Shinto (Littleton).
Regardless of the official religion, both Buddhism and Shintoism remained strong in Japanese culture. Buddhist temples were built next to Shinto shrines, leading to a fusion of the faiths by the Heian era (794-1185), often called Ryobu Shinto. In Ryobu Shinto, Shinto kami and Buddhist bosatsu, enlightened beings, were combined and worshiped as one. As aspects of Shinto diffused into Buddhism, and aspects of Buddhism diffused into Shinto, the two became increasingly indistinguishable (Littleton). The side-by-side shrines and temples were so similar, that they were often called "jingi-ju" meaning "shrine-temples" (Prideaux), and the Buddhist teacher Kobo Daishi (774-835) even said, "Among the various ways/ to become a Buddha/ the most potent way is/ the way of the kami" (Hoffman).
For centuries, Buddhism and Shintoism coexisted with the same blurred distinctions. However, during a surge of nationalism in the Meiji Era (1868-1912), Shinto was reinstated as the official religion of Japan, with a focus on ridding it of all Buddhist influences. Seen as anti-Japanese compared to their Shinto counterparts, many Buddhist artifacts were destroyed and Buddhist people persecuted (Prideaux). After World War II, "State Shinto" was revoked, and the two religions have returned to their natural state of balance. Many people of present day Japan consider themselves to be some combination of both Buddhist and Shinto (Littleton).
Wednesday, June 12, 2013
Early Shintoism
For my first post, I'm not going to look specifically at women's roles, but rather at Japan's general religious history, to get a better understanding of Japan's major religions and their cultural significance. The focus therefore will be on the history of Shintoism in pre-Buddhist Japan, with a second post on religion in Japan after the introduction of Buddhism.
Although it is largely debated when exactly Shintoism emerged in Japan, it is notable that early Shinto ideas arose with rituals related to wet rice cultivation during the Yayoi period (300 BCE-300 CE), and Shintoism became more official with the introduction of centralized government during the early Yamato period, as a government office called the 'Ministry of Kami Affairs' was put in place to perform rituals on kami (Nobutaka). What precisely kami are differs by time period, sect of Shintoism, region of Japan, and even personal belief, but kami as a whole can be defined as nature spirits that ought to be worshiped and respected (Koremaru).
In theYamato district, rituals related to the sun goddess Amaterasu became key to the emperor's power, since he was both a political and spiritual authority (Nobutaka). It was important for the emperor to obey the messages spoken to him by the divine during kami possession, and communicate those ideas to his court, that was modeled after Amaterasu's court in heaven. This meant that the court included a priest, ablutioner, a shaman, and their corresponding families. As the imperial clan expanded, and integrated smaller clans with different kami than that of the Amaterasu-dominant Yamato kingdom, it was vital for the shaman to help the emperor to communicate with kami of other clans (Kitagawa).
This 19th century woodblock print depicts Amaterasu emerging from a cave to fill the world with light (Sun Goddess...).
Although it is largely debated when exactly Shintoism emerged in Japan, it is notable that early Shinto ideas arose with rituals related to wet rice cultivation during the Yayoi period (300 BCE-300 CE), and Shintoism became more official with the introduction of centralized government during the early Yamato period, as a government office called the 'Ministry of Kami Affairs' was put in place to perform rituals on kami (Nobutaka). What precisely kami are differs by time period, sect of Shintoism, region of Japan, and even personal belief, but kami as a whole can be defined as nature spirits that ought to be worshiped and respected (Koremaru).
In theYamato district, rituals related to the sun goddess Amaterasu became key to the emperor's power, since he was both a political and spiritual authority (Nobutaka). It was important for the emperor to obey the messages spoken to him by the divine during kami possession, and communicate those ideas to his court, that was modeled after Amaterasu's court in heaven. This meant that the court included a priest, ablutioner, a shaman, and their corresponding families. As the imperial clan expanded, and integrated smaller clans with different kami than that of the Amaterasu-dominant Yamato kingdom, it was vital for the shaman to help the emperor to communicate with kami of other clans (Kitagawa).
Tuesday, June 11, 2013
Driving Question/Hypothesis
My original question for this project was how the position of women has changed over time with the development of the world's major religions. While this is still a question that very much interests me, I've found,with a bit of research, that it would be more effective to tackle it first on a regional level. My plan is to apply the same question to Japanese history, and look specifically at how changes and developments in the religions of Buddhism and Shintoism have affected the roles and responsibilities of women. I predict that I will find that genearally as a traditional religion, Shintoism may have been used as reinforcement of traditional roles for women, while Buddhism, as an alternative to the traditional religion, may have given women new opportunities.
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